Module 2 Annotated Bibliographies

Epp, G. (1980). Furnishing the unit from the viewpoint of the elderly, the designer and HUD. Boston, MA.

The author examines what she calls the actual versus perceived furnishability needs of the elderly, comparing data from four sources: an MIT study of elderly-occupied units, HUD Minimum Property Standards, a group of practicing designers and a group of beginning architectural students. She finds that those interviewed for the MIT study have substantially more pieces of furniture in their one-bedroom apartments than the other groups suggest they need, possibly due a greater emotional attachment to the furniture, and that they arranged it primarily against the walls in noticeable patterns while the other groups tended to favor circulation and zoning. She outlines several design implications which can assist designers of elderly units, such as utilizing corners effectively and specifying twin beds, and emphasizes the need for designers to rely on objective data over personal experience. Also, since the HUD standards were found to be lacking in both furniture content and arrangement, this effectively calls into question their widespread use as government-issued guidelines.

Lang, J. (1987). Creating architectural theory : The role of the behavioral sciences in environmental design. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.

Lang argues that while we have become more aware about the relationship between the built environment and physical behavior, there are still many variables in effectively designing for these behaviors. He outlines several – temperature control, illumination levels, color perception, sound and noise – which are critical in creating environments where people can carry out activities comfortably and without added strain. For those confined to wheelchairs or without hearing or sight, barrier-free design can address specific needs and apply them to the general population. He attempts to address the link between personality, body type and “tolerances for fits and misfits” in the built environment, though he acknowledges that there is a lot of guesswork involved. He does, however, find a link between socioeconomic status and body size, finding that those exposed to better nutrition and healthcare grow larger from generation to generation – although twenty-five years after publication, obesity rates among the most impoverished are actually skyrocketing.

Monaghan, P. (2000, April 7). Modern Play Spaces May Be Safe, but They’re Stultifying, Some Experts Say. The Chronicle of Higher Education. Retrieved from http://chronicle.com/article/Modern-Play-Spaces-May-Be/6750

The author explores the work of cultural geographers who consider the changing nature of childhood as a function of physiological, psychological, socioeconomic and cultural processes. In what ways does the built environment relate to the social, cultural and political identities children form, he asks, and what are the best methods available to learn these things directly from children themselves? A lot of the work of these cultural geographers can be seen in direct opposition to the child-rearing specialist Jean Piaget, who posited that all children go through a series of stages of “normal” development. Of more interest is what happens outside of these generalities, things like intuition and collective experience. Places for children to play and explore these issues are either becoming highly regulated (the “Chuck E. Cheesing” effect) or disappearing altogether in places like inner-city neighborhoods. Connections can be seen to the Michael Chabon article, which addresses some similar issues.

Panero, J., & Zelnik, M. (1979). Human dimension and interior space : a source of design reference standards. New York: Whitney Library of Design.

The authors define anthropometry as the measurement of the human body to determine differences in individuals and groups, and they readily acknowledge that much of the data used in anthropometrics comes from military studies. They differentiate between “static” dimensions, such as measurements of specific parts of the body, and “dynamic” ones taken during the operation of specific tasks. Presented in graphic form, this data shows that there is an even, symmetrical and predictable distribution around a mean resembling a bell curve. This data can be further divided into “percentiles,” where the listed number indicates the percentage of data falling at, above or below that particular threshold. This is of particular importance in the Weber article, where standards utilizing male percentiles were locking out women. What are the implications of basing an entire science on the measurements of military personnel? While the authors acknowledge that body size can vary with age, ethnicity and socioeconomic status, how can the field effectively stay ahead of the rapid demographic changes occurring today and what impact does this have on designers?

Ulrich, R. (1992). How design impacts wellness. The Healthcare Forum Journal, 35(5), 20-25.

While healthcare facilities have historically been designed to be functionally efficient, there is growing awareness and evidence that designers must take psychological factors into account in order to maximize the health benefits of the built environment. Stress, for instance, can negatively impact physical health and should be limited as much as possible through minimizing things which cause it (confusion, loud noise, lack of privacy) and giving patients a greater sense of control, better access to social support and positive distractions. While things like self-administered pain medication, patient rooms which allow for overnight visitors and sightlines to windows from bed may not seem like much, taken together they can have a profound effect on the health and wellbeing of not only patients but also staff and visitors. However, one could argue that the methodology used to draw some of these conclusions is potentially flawed, and more research – such as occupancy studies or evidence-based design theories – needs to be conducted.

Weber, R. (1997). Manufacturing Gender in Commercial and Military Cockpit Design. Science, Technology, and Human Values, 22(2), 235-253.

Examining the design of US military and commercial cockpits, the author argues that both have historically been built to the anthropometric measurements of men to the general exclusion of women and some smaller-sized men. In the 1990s, a military training system called JPATS originally specified certain anthropometric requirements for safe use, though these would have ruled out nearly two-thirds of women trainees. A 1993 directive instructed that JPATS should in fact accommodate 80% of women, resulting in their eventual inclusion after debate within the military and the press which focused on issues of pragmatism, inclusion and parity. Commercial cockpit design does not take these into account, the author argues, instead focusing on “the intersection of technological capability, labor relations and profit margins.” As it is not economically advantageous for airlines to design for female anthropometry, they do not do so. Many retired military pilots eventually work for commercial airlines, though, so as more servicewomen become pilots it may force airlines to rethink their cockpit design. Also, as technology and specifically robotics advances even further, maybe ways of bringing instruments to pilots instead of the other way around will be developed.